Letters of Recommendation COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Letters of Recommendation COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Many applicants recently have asked about the “ideal” combination of recommendation letters.   There is no real ideal combination, it really depends on the applicant; however let me elaborate a bit on the subject. Recommendation letters should come from one of two sources: academic or professional.   In other words, from individuals who have supervised you in the classroom or in the work place.   “Work place” is a broad term.   The work place could include internships, volunteer work, or paid full-time work.   Sometimes unpaid work is much more in alignment with an applicant’s goals and if you are choosing to do something and not get paid for it, this shows a great deal of dedication and commitment. Since SIPA is a professional school it makes sense that we would like to see at least one professional letter of recommendation.   The only combination we really do not recommend is three academic letters of recommendation.   An applicant that submits three academic letters is basically telling us that there is no one from the professional world that can comment on their ability and qualifications for graduate school. Beyond this advice, any combination will do.   If you have been out of school for several years, do not feel compelled to go back and get a letter of recommendation from a professor who did not really know you or that you have not been in contact with.   We would much rather receive letters from those that know you and that you have been in contact with in some capacity.   If you had fabulous relationships with a few professors two letters of recommendation from professors is fine. It is really up to you.   When it comes down to it what we are really looking for is a letter than not only addresses your character, but that addresses you potential to succeed in our program.   This is best accomplished in examples.   When you talk with those writing letters for you, please tell them to include examples of your competence.   It is one thing to say that someone is smart and capable; it is another to provide solid examples of intelligence and ability in the work place or in the classroom.   Be sure that you speak with those writing letters on your behalf and clarify this point.

How do Video Games Affect Hand Eye Coordination - Free Essay Example

Hand-eye coordination means how fast hand reaction speed is in relation with eye reaction speed. The cerebellum is the part of the brain that effects your hand-eye coordination. The cerebellum is used for vision. The cerebellum also keeps people on balance. It is one of three major parts of the brain. The other two are the brainstem and the cerebrum. Of the three parts, it is linked in actions the most. Studies show how many jobs involving actions are preformed better by workers that play video games. For example, it takes a lot of studying and intelligence to be a surgeon, but surgeons who play video games are better at there jobs. If surgeons play video games, then they are thirty-seven percent less likely to make a mistake and and preform the procedure twenty-seven percent faster then non gamers. The University of Toronoto did a study where they tested people that play video games and people that do not usually play video games. The first test, the participants as to ke ep the mouse on a white square. In the beginning, the results were about the same. By the end, the video game players were way better at keeping the mouse on the white square. The results proved that people who play action video game on the regular such as, Call of Duty, Assassins Creed, and Fortnite are better at learning new sensory motor tasks, and improve hand-eye coordination then those who dont play video games. We wanted to understand if chronic video game playing has an effect on sensorimotor control, that is, the coordinated function of vision and hand movement, said graduate student Davood Gozli after the experience. Who led the study with supervisor Jay Pratt. According to The University of Toronto This is likely due to the gamers superior ability in learning a novel sensorimotor pattern, that is, their gaming experience enabled them to learn better than the non-gamers. According to electronics.howstuffworks.com With 67 percent of American households playing them, video games are no longer the exclusive domain of 15-year-old boys who spend Friday nights in damp basements. Video games arent just a time suck for kids who dont want to finish homework The military is running out of UAV pilots. UAVs stands for unmanned aerial vehicle. The military may look to video game players. Li Li and Rongrong Chen along with Jing Chen conducted an experiment were they tested video games players who play both first person shooters and driving games and regular people. Everyone participated in a game were a car controlled by the participants had to stay inside two lines. During the game, wind would randomly blow on the car. The regular people did pretty good on the game, but the gamers were way better. According to pychologytoday.com They also reacted more quickly and more accurately to the crosswinds.

How Important Was Martin Luther King to the Success of the...

How important was Martin Luther King to the success of the civil rights movement? ‘Nothing mattered more to king than being an outstanding preacher. Martin Luther King had an exceptional personal some state. He was a very proud and an outspoken man. He had been ‘conditioned’ from the mere age of nine and ordained in a black church for later life purposes (1). At a young age racism surrounded him and was affected first hand. He was abused by a white mill owner purely on the colour of his skin. He also witnessed other black people suffering from violence when he saw a white mob attack and barbarically murder a black man. King was a very opinionated person and became a lead figure head publicly known on a national scale. This came to be†¦show more content†¦As a few white passengers boarded the bus and the white sections were already full so the driver shouted back at four black people including Rosa Parks â€Å"Move yall, I want those two seats†. As this demand was made by the driver 3 of the bus riders obeyed to what was shouted b ack, however Rosa Parks remained in her seat and was determined not to move. She was arrested following the bus drivers order and fined ten dollars. This, however small incited a great wave of bus boycotts which in Montgomery black people chose not to ride the bus for a period of 381 days. This still to date is known as the moment in which the civil rights movement started to gain headway. It was the will of one woman who decided it was time for black people to take a stand and from this point on Martin Luther King was assigned to take this boycott on. Although he was assigned to take this on people also felt as he was young, fresh and people had not formulated enough of an opinion of him, there was little room for him to be hated yet so he posed as the right figure to lead this. After the many days of boycotting the case of this transport issue in Alabama went to the Supreme Court. Here it was decided that segregation was declared as unconstitutional so segregation by law was noSho w MoreRelatedMartin Luther King J. And Malcolm X Essay1547 Words   |  7 Pages1960’s was an era of major conflict between African Americans and whites in the United States which led to discrimination and disorder in the states. African Americans were fortunate to have outstanding leaders who fought for a difference and change during the Civil Rights movement. Both Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X were two powerful individuals who gave hope to African Americans and oppressed people in the United States. They are both well known individuals for their Civil Rights protestingRead MoreMahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, and Nelson Mandela1504 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, and Nelson Mandela Non-violence is a concept that people participate in social and political change without violence. It is a form of social and political change between passive acceptances and armed struggle. Non-violence way to participate in the social and political change is including nonviolent civil disobedience against, acts of civil disobedience or other powerful influence uncooperative antagonistic form; it is similar with pacifism, but it is notRead MoreBirmingham Campaign Speech Persuasive Speech1639 Words   |  7 PagesInterviewer: Good evening ladies and gentlemen, please welcome Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr: Good evening, it’s a privilege being here to discuss an important matter with you all. Interviewer: I hear that you re going to talk about the history of Racial Discrimination which happened in Birmingham, 1963. Martin Luther King Jr: Yes, that is true. I believe it is time for the audience to learn the truth about the Birmingham Campaign that happened in 1963. Interviewer: We are tryingRead MoreDr. Martin Luther King Research Paper1430 Words   |  6 Pages DR. MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. SPEECH â€Å"I HAVE A DREAM† Martin Luther King Jr. was born on January 15 , 1929 and died on April 4, 1968. He was born Michael Luther King Jr. but decided to change his name to Martin. Both Martin Luther’s grandfather and father were pastors of the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta. Martin Luther carried on the tradition and served as pastor from 1960-1968 (Nobel Prize, 1). He was a big part of the civil rights movement for his race. In fact he was the most importantRead MoreMartin Luther King Impact1553 Words   |  7 PagesThe Civil Rights Movement was the unification between all parts of society, the blacks, the whites, the rich, and the poor. There were several attempts by many people and groups to help bring amalgamation and equality for everyone. Martin Luther King was the key person involved in this movement, with no major competition for the overall leadership of the movement from 1957 to the mid 1960s . He attempted to alleviate the sense of crisis that pervaded America during the Civil Rig hts Era. King was theRead MoreMartin Luther King’s Policy of Peaceful Protest Essay1337 Words   |  6 PagesMartin Luther King’s policy of peaceful protest was important because it led to public sympathy of the way black Americans were treated by white Americans an example of this would be the Birmingham campaign (1963), Kennedy said he was sickened by the images of violence and the soviet media used 1/5 of their time to broadcast on it. Other campaigns that where peaceful and effective which were set up or supported by king include The Selma campaign, Montgomery Bus Boycott, the march on Washington, theRead MoreMartin Luther King Essay1422 Words   |  6 PagesDr Martin Luther King Jr. (1929 – 1968) was a Baptist minister turned prominent Civil Rights Movement leader that campaigned for the progression of civil rights in America. In his 13 years of leadership, he and his associates achieved more in attaining racial equality for the African-American populatio n than the combined efforts of activists 350 years prior, through protests, grassroot organising and civil disobedience to achieve their goal of ending racial segregation. During his leadership, fiveRead MoreA Research on The Civil Rights Movement1448 Words   |  6 Pagesabout the Civil Rights Movement (Martin Luther King Jr. Vs Malcolm X) and will be focusing on two important icons that have an important part of African American History. I am going to further discuss in this research paper, â€Å"What were the views of Martin Luther King. Jr and Malcolm X during the Civil Rights movement? What were their goals and methods to achieve equality and peace?† Both leaders wanted to unite the black race with the white race and achieve equal rights. Martin Luther King. Jr andRead MoreEssay on Analysis of Martin Luther Kings 1219 Words   |  5 Pagesand influential are the best adjectives to explain Letter from Birmingham Jail. Martin Luther King Jrs astuteness is enhanced by th e astonishing capability to show the unkind and heartless attitude against black community. Throughout the whole writing to the eight clergymen Jr. never get too far from the clash for fairness in Birmingham. As head of the South Christians Leadership Conferences (SCLC), Martin L. King, Junior., in the year 1963 acknowledged Birmingham, Alabama, as possibly the mostRead MoreFamous Thinkers Essay1309 Words   |  6 PagesThinkers Paper: Bill Gates and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. PHL/458 Mr. McDuffie October 2, 2012 While exploring history and trying to realize the famous thinkers of our society, countless men and women stand out. Famous thinkers are individuals who used determination and critical thinking to overcome hard times in order to do well. The two famous thinkers that thrust out in my mind are Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Bill Gates. In this

The Pattern Of Juvenile Delinquency Is Strain Theory

Another relevant theory in regards to the pattern of juvenile delinquency is Strain Theory. In 1938, Robert Merton developed the theory of Strain to describe how social structures within society may pressure citizens (low socioeconomic status) to commit crimes. Merton felt that too much pressure to achieve goals, such as financial well-being, led to behaviors such as selling drugs. Merton’s theory relates to juvenile delinquency in that adolescents might experience overwhelming stress or pressure in their peer groups to have more money, to fit in, or to be influential. These social stressors will perpetuate delinquency because the teens will want to participate in criminal activity to solve such problems. In 1992, Robert Agnew†¦show more content†¦There are two types of strain theory—objective strain and subjective strain. Objective strain results from events that have become stressful such as the passing of a family member (Huck, Spraitz, Bowers, Morris, 201 7). Subjective strain is what an individual sees as stressful for their own self (Huck, Spraitz, Bowers, Morris, 2017). Latinos in the United States are growing at a fast rate. According to the 2007 United States Census Bureau, Latinos comprise about 14.7% of the population. Latinos have socio-cultural differences that have impacted research. For an example, there are only certain geographical locations where the majority of Latinos are located (Rodriguez Belshaw, 2010). The educational levels for Latinos are lower and the amount of income Latinos bring in is also substantially lower. Latinos also share different traditional values such as familism, respect, honor, brotherhood, and gender role differences (Rodriguez Belshaw, 2010). The social and cultural differences of Latinos may lead them to encounter a different set of stressors that can affect the juvenile delinquency of the Latino population (Rodriguez Belshaw, 2010). A study conducted by Mazerolle and Maash using data fro m the National Youth Survey examined if the stresses that Latinos experience on account of exposure to delinquent peers or values affect deviant behavior of Latino Youths (Rodriguez Belshaw, 2010). The study argued that theShow MoreRelatedThe Relationship Between Social Class and Delinquency Essays1498 Words   |  6 Pagespreconceived notions regarding the relationship between social class and delinquency. A common assumption is that lower-class juveniles are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior than their higher-class counterparts. Criminologists have performed a large number of studies examining the socio-demographic characteristics of delinquents, which often yielded contradictory results. When analyzing the extent and trend of juvenile delinquency in the United States conclusions can be drawn from estimates derivedRead MoreThe General Strain Theory And Juvenile Delinquency1715 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The general strain theory is an established theory that provides a basic understanding relating to different elements leading to specific criminal behaviors. The theory has been of importance in trying to map criminal patterns among individuals involved in criminal behavior, thereby creating a platform for their rehabilitation. The general strain theory has had a close connection to juvenile delinquency, as it creates a platform where psychologists can define some of the key factorsRead MoreCauses Of Juvenile Delinquency. Authors John Hagan And1601 Words   |  7 PagesCauses of Juvenile Delinquency Authors John Hagan and Bill McCarthy of Cambridge University offer an insight between the relationship between juveniles and their participation to criminal activities. According to them, the primary theories they employed in understanding the dynamics of youth taking to the street are control theory and strain theory (Benjamin, 1999). Through control theory, the authors point out erratic parenting, family deprivation, neglect and abuse and other forms of parental rejectionRead MoreThe Revival of the Strain Theory Essay1272 Words   |  6 PagesResearchers are constantly looking for explanations for criminal patterns and crime rates among juveniles. They have presented many theories to serve as such explanations with strain theory being one of them; however, like many other theories, strain theory was pushed aside decades ago. It was not until recently that this theory was given new life by criminologist, Robert Agnew. Robert Agnew introduced this new development as the general str ain theory. GST was the first supposition that was not tied to socialRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency A Sociological Approach1408 Words   |  6 PagesA juvenile delinquent is an individual under the age of eighteen years old who fails to abide by the law. When identifying the causes of juvenile delinquency society can slow down or prevent the behavior by using strategies. The quality of peers, family, parenting, community and school area can all be predictors of juvenile delinquency. Theories help us explain why juveniles are engaging in delinquent behavior and it is important to understand why because it helps us explain the motives for theirRead MoreThe Theories Of Crime Causation Essay1414 Words   |  6 Pages Theories of Crime Causation Dolores Jackson Williams Colorado Technical University Juvenile offender 1. Biological theory states that the individual will have certain traits will be transmitted from parent to children through genetics and not from social learning. Along with the juvenile having similar facial characteristics, which some believe also predisposes them to criminal behavior (Palmerin, 2012). 2. Rational choice theory states that the person will make sensible and reasonableRead MoreThe Chicago School Of Sociology1624 Words   |  7 Pagesin rich and intriguing detail particular events and processes from their experience of being immersed with actual participants and getting to know their situated life patterns and belief systems† (â€Å"The Chicago School†, n.d.). The main purpose of this research is to ascertain if the Chicago school of sociology and â€Å"General Strain Theory (GST) share any type of relationship in regards to stress, criminal behavior that leads to crime, negative emotions base on the community in which they reside, and failureRead MoreThe Legal System Of School1438 Words   |  6 PagesThrough the seventeenth and eighteenth century, multiple developments that occurred in England aided in the advancements and recognition of children’s rights. Over time, these advancements affected the juvenile legal system as it emerged in Ameri ca. These changes include changes in family style and child care, the English Poor Laws, the apprenticeship movement, and the role of the chancery court. (Siegel and Welsh) Changes in family structure made a huge difference with children’s rights. MarriageRead MoreJuvenile criminal gangs have long been a significant issue with the criminal justice establishment.1100 Words   |  5 PagesJuvenile criminal gangs have long been a significant issue with the criminal justice establishment. Youths coming together to commit criminal acts normally attributed to adult and more vicious criminal organizations are now being routinely committed by juveniles. The reasons for these youths in committing the activities have somewhat baffled author tries as well as scholars and researchers. It must be noted however, that juvenile delinquency is not new; laws in the past have sought to control theRead MoreThe Strain Theory of Understanding Juvenile Delinquency Essay1879 Words   |  8 Pageshave researched and hypothesized the main contributing factors that promote juvenile delinquency. The Strain/ Anomie theory introduced by Robert Merton and later revised by s everal other theorists, attempts to explain why juvenile subculture tend to behave certain ways when confronted with pressures from everyday life. Revised by other theorists, the Strain theory attempts to provide the framework of juvenile delinquency and its sources in order to analyze the effectiveness of this assumption, as

West Side Story and Romeo and Juliet - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1184 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/03/13 Category Literature Essay Level High school Topics: Romeo and Juliet Essay William Shakespeare Essay Did you like this example? West Side Story and Romeo and Juliet both revolve around two rival groups and/or gangs. The film Romeo and Juliet (1968) is about two rival families, the Montagues and the Capulets, whose family feuds have gone so far back in their history that they forget the fuel behind their disputes. In West Side Story, the film involves two rival gangs: The Jets, a gang of Caucasian teenagers, and the Sharks, a gang of Puerto Rican immigrants. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "West Side Story and Romeo and Juliet" essay for you Create order Their feud begins when the Sharks try to invade the Jets’ territory in Manhattan, New York. In both storylines, a boy and a girl of opposing groups fall in love with each other despite the groups differences; But in return, their love results in their death. Between the two films, a direct comparison between the characters can be clearly observed. Tony, from West Side Story, matches Romeo’s character, while Maria matches the character of Juliet. Bernardo can be portrayed as Tybalt with his temper and need to fight, while Riff is compared to Mercutio’s personality similar to that of a jester. From West Side Story, Anita can be seen as the nurse, watching over Maria/Juliet, and Chino is in direct comparison of Paris; They are supposed to marry the key girl. Maria is set up to marry Chino, exactly like Juliet is supposed to marry Paris. In the films, the meeting of the lovers ultimately starts with a dance in which both Romeo/Tony are convinced by Mercutio/Riff to come, but for different reasons. Mercutio wants Romeo to go and forget about Rosaline by seeing the other women, while Riff needs Tony to go to help with the rivalry of the Sharks. Tony and Maria meet and experience â€Å"love at first sight† just like Romeo and Juliet at the dance. They dance together and share a kiss before they are separated and realize that they are from rival families. In both cases, a balcony scene is present. In West Side Story, T ony actually climbs the balcony and makes physical contact with Maria. Those are the major similarities between West Side Story and Romeo and Juliet. In addition to the plot structures, similar themes are present in West Side Story and Romeo and Juliet. The idea that blinded love can lead to rash decisions is highly present in both storylines. It is present in Romeo and Juliet in a sense that within simply meeting each other, Romeo and Juliet believe they fell in love with one another. Romeo proclaims, â€Å"Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight! For I neer saw true beauty till this night,† forgetting all about Rosaline: the very woman he claims to have loved no less than five minutes prior. Juliet tells the nurse, â€Å"Go ask his name. If he be married, my grave is like to be my wedding bed,† showing that she already wants to be married. Because of their love for each other, Romeo and Juliet think they cannot live without one another. Romeo and Juliet both end up killing themselves because they believe that they, themselves, cannot live without each other. Parallelism within the theme of Romeo and Juliet i s present in West Side Story. Tony and Maria kiss each and cannot bear to be without the other immediately preceding having just met. Tony, needing to see her again, goes to her balcony and they end up confessing their love for one another. Maria tells Tony to meet her at the bridal shop where she works the next day. During this time, they practically have their unofficial wedding in that very shop. Tony then goes to find Chino after believing Maria is dead but at the last second, he and Maria find each other and go in for a loving embrace; However, Chino shoots Tony in that very moment. Maria does not end up killing herself but does grieve over Tony’s death and eventually moves on. The demonstration of the thought that blind love can lead to rash decisions is present in both Romeo and Juliet and West Side Story. On the contrary, West Side Story and Romeo and Juliet have several differences between the two. For example, the actual rivalry is between opposing gangs in West Side Story, not families. The Montagues and Capulets of Romeo and Juliet have been fighting for so many generations that it becomes natural for them to want to fight each other. They have no purpose behind their feud besides family hate. In West Side Story, the feud begins when the Sharks begin to intrude in the Jets’ turf. Another big difference between the two films is the fight scenes. In Romeo and Juliet, Romeo acts impulsive when Tybalt kills Mercutio and proceeds to kill Tybalt right after. In West Side Story, Tony doesn’t kill Bernardo after Bernardo stabs Riff with his knife. Tony simply impales Bernardo with the knife and runs off. One of the most critical pieces to the storyline between the two films is that Romeo gets banished, whereas in West Side Story, Tony gets no immediate repercussions for his actions. He is not banished and does not go to jail, ultimately nothing happened to Tony. Without any harsh punishment, Maria does not become quite as depressed and expresses a will to live. Another significant difference is in the death scenes in each film. In Romeo and Juliet, Romeo kills himself because he believes Juliet is dead, and Juliet also commits suicide with Romeo’s dagger because she sees that Romeo is dead. In West Side Story, Tony does not commit suicide because, instead, he is shot by Chino right before embracing Maria. Since he is shot he does end up dying, yet this does not lead Maria to take her own life. Maria ends up forgiving the two gangs and moving on with her life. That is ultimately the biggest difference between the two films. In addition, Paris also dies along with Romeo and Juliet. In West Side Story, Chino is the one who kills Tony, yet he himself does not die. As a result, the movies’ twists result in a more interested audience for West Side Story due to the contemporary setting as oppose to Romeo and Juliet. It uses an abundance of modern day words and phrases that people can understand better and faster than Shakespeare’s English. Also, modern-choreographed dances shown in West Side Story are more common than big formal balls as shown in Romeo and Juliet. The dancing and singing is very entertaining to watch, and it is a good tactic for keeping the audience’s attention throughout the film. The fights throughout the dances are humorous and keep the audience’s attention rather well. West Side Story is meant to grasp the attention of young adults the most. All the characters are teenagers in the musical. Being a teenager is a big part of one’s life; One can experience love, danger, and have many opportunities to make huge choices. The characters of West Side Story encounter all those experiences, which hel ps in relating to teenagers the most.

Essay on Ethnography on Cambodian Americans - 903 Words

I chose Cambodian Americans for my target culture because it was a place I knew very little about. My ignorance of that side of the world is laughable to say the least. Cambodian American was a great choice because both the people and the culture are very captivating to me. While some Cambodian Americans become very westernized, accepting most of America’s cultural norms, some hold strong to their Cambodian traditions and way of life. Through Geert Hofstede’s Taxonomy, I will explore the dynamics of the Cambodian American culture. Through Identity, Hierarchy, Gender, Truth and Virtue I will attempt to describe a culture previously virtually unknown to me. I chose Hofstede’s Taxonomy over Bond’s because Michael Bond himself told me to.†¦show more content†¦While most Cambodian Americans are loyal to their own family units it is not uncommon for them to be hesitant about close interaction with strangers even other Cambodians. The hesitation that so me Cambodian Americans face when meeting with strangers is due to the fact that the Cambodian culture is one of high power distance. Hierarchy is determined usually by age or economic status. Social hierarchy of age is evident in the greetings. Depending on who you are greeting determines the type of greeting. If one were to greet someone who is Cambodian, they should do the formal put hands together and bow. At chest level to someone who is of the same age or status, at mouth level to a superior such as a boss and at nose level to someone who is an elder, such as a grandparent. (Vorani) If greeting someone who isn’t Cambodian, we just normally do the American â€Å"hi† while waving. It just really depends. For the Cambodian culture, we have to make sure we greet using again the hands together while bowing especially to those who are older than your parents. You also have to say a formal saying in Khmer but I forgot the translation for it in one must to refer them as â€Å"ming†, â€Å"bou†, or â€Å"orm†. This is based on both age and gender. (Eam) There is a clear delineation between superiors and subordinates and between the young and the old. (Serpa) While the Cambodian culture itself is more feminine there is a high level of respect paid to the men of the household. The

Nonsmokers A Prospective Study Free Essays

In 2006, Rudolf bertagnoli and his team published a study investigating the effects of smoking on patients who have undergone Lumbar total disc arthroplasty. â€Å"Smoking has always been considered to a negative predictor for fusion surgery.† (Bertagnoli. We will write a custom essay sample on Nonsmokers: A Prospective Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now R, 2006) Not many studies have been undertaken to observe effects of smoking on the procedure of Total arthroplasty and the recovery afterwards in smoking and non smoking patients. Some research suggests that smoking prevents or reduces the bones ability to grow into the prosthesis. Delay in recovery and decrease in over all success of the implantation procedure have also been blamed on smoking. (ProDisc Total Disc Replacement, 2008) â€Å"The aim of the study was to evaluate the changes in functional and disability outcomes within a period of two years minimum in smoking and nonsmoking patients who have undergone the artificial disc replacement therapy.† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) The Null hypothesis and the Alternate hypothesis proposed were as follows. Null Hypothesis: Smoking has no detrimental effect on success of artificial disc replacement (ADR). Alternate Hypothesis: â€Å"Smoking has a detrimental effect on the success of artificial disc replacement (ADR).† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) A cohort study was conducted with an initial sample of 110 patients between March 2000 and April 2002. The inclusion criteria for the sampling included, smokers and non smokers, age between 18-65 years, â€Å"disabling low back pain and some radicular pain secondary to single-level lumbar spondylosis† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) , patients undergoing minimum of 2 year follow up and assessment, and lastly failure of medical treatment. They excluded â€Å"patients with spinal stenosis, osteoporosis, prior fusion surgery, chronic infections, metal allergies, facet arthrosis, inadequate vertebral endplate size, more than one level of spondylosis, neuromuscular disease, pregnancy, Workers’ Compensation, spinal litigation, body mass index greater than 35, and/or any isthmic.† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) Patient’s smoking status was recorded through questionnaires. Preoperative aspects of the lumbar anomaly were recorded radiographically. Outcome measurements were recorded at 3rd, 6th, 12th and the 24th month after undergoing the procedure. The procedure success and recovery progression was noted using the Visual Analog Score (VAS) and the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI). Questionnaires recording the back pain, pain drugs usage and patient satisfaction were also used. Preoperative and postoperative radiographical assessment of the back was also used to observe the recovery progression in both, the smoking and non smoking group of patients. Dependent variables included Smoking and Non smoking group. Whereas the independent variables included VAS, ODI, patient satisfaction, leg pain, work rates (postoperative), and drugs used postoperatively. Statistical analysis was done as it was found that even though there was significant changes between preoperative and postoperative variable like VAS, ODI, patient satisfaction, relief of leg pain work rate etc but no statistically significant differences were found between these outcomes of smoking patients when compared with nonsmokers. Therefore, the study fails to reject the null hypothesis, which still stands, i.e. â€Å"Smoking has no detrimental effect on success of artificial disc replacement (ADR).† (Bertagnoli. R, 2006) The research was conducted in a controlled manner excluded many bias.   But further studies need to be conducted with larger sample sizes to further explore the role of smoking if any, in the success of disc replacement. Also there is need for exploring the link between blood levels of nicotine and success of procedure as well as the effects of smoking and indicators of bone adherence to the prosthesis needs to be further conducted. Couple of questions that come to mind, if nicotine plays such great inhibiting effect on the bone and collagen growth as the study claims, then why wasn’t the effect of smoking   on growth factors and their monitoring not included in the study. Also, if as the researchers claim, that nicotine has an analgesic effect on patient, was it not included as a component in the study? REFERENCES Bertagnoli. R., Yue. J.J., Kershaw.T, Shah.R, V., Pfeiffer. F, Fenk-Mayer, A, et al. (2006). Lumbar Total Disc Arthroplasty Utilizing the ProDisc Prosthesis in Smokers versus Nonsmokers: A Prospective Study with 2-Year Minimum Follow-up. Spine, 3, 992-997. ProDisc Total Disc Replacement (2008).   Spine Service- Sydney, Australia, retrieved on February 29th, 2008, from http://www.spine-service.org/dr.html ; ; ; ; ; How to cite Nonsmokers: A Prospective Study, Essay examples